OxPho & ETC along Inner Mitochondrial Membrane

Types of Leukocytes (WBCs)

1) Granular Leukocytes: Neutrophils, Basophils, Eosinophil, NK Cells...

- inflammation & allergic reactions

2) Lymphocytes: T & B Lymphocytes...

- immune response

3) Monocytes: Macrophages

- phagocytosis

Electrical Conduction in Heart

1) SA Node, 2) AV Node, 3) Bundle of HIS, 4) Purkinje fibers

Tachycardias = fast / Bradycardia = slow

Sites:
Heart Site: http://www.heartsite.com/html/electrical_activity.html
Wiki: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrical_conduction_system_of_the_heart

Depolarization and the ECG

SA node: P wave (Atrial Systole, atrial repolarization)

AV node/Bundles: PR interval (Period of conduction)

Purkinje fibers/ventricular myocardium: QRS complex (Ventricular Systole, rapid ventricular depolarization)

Ventricular repolarization: T wave (Ventricular Diastole, ventricular repolarization)

ST Segment: The ventricles are repolarized

"also referred to as the isoelectric period, represents the period in which the entirety of both ventricles is depolarized. This roughly corresponds to the plateau phase of a ventricular action potential."

QT Segment: The time it takes for the DEpolarization AND REpolarization of the ventricles to occur

Videos:

EKG: http://www.youtube.com/watch?feature=player_detailpage&v=v3b-YhZmQu8

Prokaryotes vs. Eukaryotes

3 Domain System (Classification)

Tyndall Effect (particles interacting with light)

Colloid: A dispersion of particles of 1 substance (dispersed phase) throughout another substance or solution (the continuous phase). Differs from a "true solution" in which the particles are larger.

Tyndall Effect: The scattering of light by colloidal-size particles (NOT particles in a "true solution"--those are too small). Beam of light ("path of the light") is visible/detectable.

COLLOIDAL PARTICLES ARE BIG ENOUGH TO SCATTER THE LIGHT.

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=k5HMVIb4J7A&feature=related

BLUE SKY / RED SUNSET
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Eo1WoKfJfkA&feature=related

- blue light scatters MORE EASILY than red light
- red/orange light scatters the LEAST
- gradual addition of colloidal particles makes it gradually more difficult for the light to pass through "the container"--"as it gets saturated...more and more light gets scattered at the beginning...will see the differentiation of colors of red, orange, and blue (sunset)"
- observing light traveling the LONGEST/FURTHEST throughout the atmosphere (orange/red) as opposed to traveling DIRECTLY/SHORTEST throughout the atmosphere (blue)

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=sEB-6uxtxyE&feature=related

Vital Capacity

VC = IRV + TV + ERV (nooooot RV--residual volume--too)

(703+)
- Boyle's Law! (P and V inverse)
spirometer - measures the volume of air exchanged in breathing
- normal = tidal volume (TV) = 500mL
- extra expiration = expiratory reserve volume (ERV)
- extra inspiration = inspiratory reserve volume (IRV)
- amount of air that cannot be forcibly expired = residual volume (RV)
- in pneumothorax, the RV is eliminated when lung collapses!

Amino Acids & Proteins

Protein Structure/Dep on...1° Primary--DNA, 2° Secondary--H-bonds b/w amino acid backbone, 3° Tertiary--CHAPERONE PROTEINS non-cov folding

Alpha Helices & Beta Sheets are forms of 2° SECONDARY proteins structure because of H-bonding patterns

LIVER "deaminates" amino acids, converting them into ammonia (toxic), then combines them with CO2 to form UREA

Spermatogenesis & Oogenesis (production of gametes)

exam (wtf): "If chromosomal duplication before tetrad formation occurred twice during spermatogenesis, while the other steps of meiosis occurred normally...FOUR DIPLOID, and not four haploid cells would result.

Axial vs. Appendicular Skeletons

Extremely unnecessary post...but I like the pictures...

Axial skeleton

Appendicular skeleton

Mutations

Small-scale Point Mutations (one base pair)

Nonsense – premature stop codon, truncates the protein

***the mRNA sequence (with its U's) is what's mutated, thus mutating codons that code for specific proteins!!! here you've mutated a codon in the mRNA such that it now reads as a "STOP codon", which are either UAA, UAG, or UGA.

Missense – codes for a different AA

Silent – codes for the same AA (no change in phenotype)

Insertions/Deletions (from Transposons or errors)

Frameshift – shifts the reading frame

Splice site mutation – alters the splicing of mRNA

**splicing is a modification of an RNA after transcription, in which introns are removed and exons are joined!!

a genetic mutation that inserts or deletes a number of nucleotides in the specific site at which splicing of an intron takes place during the processing of precursor messenger RNA into mature messenger RNA. The abolishment of the splicing site results in one or more introns remaining in mature mRNA and may lead to the production of aberrant proteins.

Hormones (mechanisms of action)

A. Peptide Hormones: Secondary Messengers

- ex: ADH, Insulin

- polar (H2O soluble, fat insoluble)

- outside cell messenger

- bind to receptors on cell SURFACE, trigger cAMP cascade (inactivated by phosphodiesterase)

B. Steroid Hormones: Primary Messengers

- ex: Estrogen, Aldosterone

- classic ring structure, all derived from CHOLETEROL

- non-polar, lipid-soluble so can directly pass from cell's phospholipid membrane

- inside the cell messengers, goes into nucleus, targets gene expression

C. Amino Acid Derivative Hormones

ex: Epinephrine

- can act as EITHER peptide hormones OR steroid hormones!

Evolution

Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium

- evolution as a result of changing gene frequencies (frequency of a particular allele) within a population

Gene pool only stable when:

1. The population is very large

2. There are no mutations that affect the gene pool

3. Mating between individuals in the population is random

4. there is no net migration of individuals into or out of the population

5. The genes in the population are all EQUALLY successful at reproducing

p² + 2pq + q² = 1

p + q = 1

p² = frequency of TT (dominant homozygotes)

2pq = frequency of Tt (heterozygotes)

q² = frequency tt (recessive homozygotes)

Cross between 2 heterozygotes:

	p = .80 (T)	q = .20 (t)
p = .80 (T)	(p2 = .64) TT = 64%	(pq = .16) Tt = 16%
q = .20 (t)	(pq = .16) Tt = 16%	(q2 = .04) tt = 4%

The gene frequencies of F₁ generation can be calculated as follows:

64%TT = 64% T allele + 0% t allele

32% Tt = 16% T allele + 16% t allele

4% tt = 0% T allele + 4% t allele

Gene freq = 80% T allele + 20% t allele

Thus, p = .80 and q = .20. These frequencies are the same as those in the parent generation, thus demonstration H-W equilibrium in a non-evolving population. (However, this does not exist in nature!)

Modes of Natural Selection

Directional Selection: Organisms must adapt to a changing environment, so produces an adaptive change over time which increases the proportion of individuals with an extreme phenotype (ex: DDT-resistant mosquitoes).

Stabilizing Selection: Eliminates deviations from the norm & reduces frequency of extreme phenotypes by maintaining a well-adapted population, uniform in character.

Disruptive Selection: Favors BOTH phenotypic extremes, leading to the existence of 2 or more phenotypic forms within a population (polymorphism).

Microevolution

Natural Selection: Genotypes with favorable variations are selected through natural selection, and the frequency of favorable gene increases within the gene pool.

Mutation: Gene mutations change allele frequencies in a population, shifting gene equilibria.

Assorting Mating: If mates are not randomly chosen, but rather selected according to criteria such as phenotypes and proximity, the relative genotype ratios will be affected, and will depart from the predictions of the Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium. On the average, the allele frequencies in the gene pool remain unchanged.

Genetic Drift: Genetic drift refers to changes in the composition of the gene pool due to chance. Genetic drift tends to be more pronounced in small populations, where it is sometimes called the founder effect.

Gene Flow: Migration of individuals between populations will result in a loss or gain of genes, and thus change the composition of a population’s gene pool.

Nervous System Confusion!!

Monocistronic vs. Polycistronic mRNA

An mRNA molecule is said to be monocistronic when it contains the genetic information to translate only a single protein. This is the case for most of the eukaryotic mRNAs.^[5][6] On the other hand, polycistronic mRNA carries the information of several genes, which are translated into several proteins. These proteins usually have a related function and are grouped and regulated together in an operon. Most of the mRNA found in bacteria and archea are polycistronic.^[5] Dicistronic or bicistronic is the term used to describe an mRNA that encodes only two proteins.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polycistronic#Monocistronic_versus_polycistronic_mRNA

Sarcomere

Dr. Martha Dixon: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-9DmO-SRY3E

Amino Acid TERMS

• The genetic code is composed of nucleotide triplets. In other words, three nucleotides in mRNA (a codon) specify one amino acid in a protein.
• The code is non-overlapping. This means that successive triplets are read in order. Each nucleotide is part of only one triplet codon.
• The genetic code is unambiguous. Each codon specifies a particular amino acid, and only one amino acid. In other words, the codon ACG codes for the amino acid threonine, and only threonine.
• The genetic code is degenerate (redundant!). In contrast, each amino acid can be specified by more than one codon.
• The code is nearly universal. Almost all organisms in nature (from bacteria to humans) use exactly the same genetic code. The rare exceptions include some changes in the code in mitochondria, and in a few protozoan species.

Hemoglobin and the Oxygen-Dissociation Curve (IB)

- "Partial Pressures" of O2 and CO2 are measurements of their concentrations

- As O2 binds, conformational change makes it easier for other O2's to join (4 in total, 4 heme groups per hemoglobin)

- As O2 leaves, makes it easier for other O2's to leave

- When CO2 is produced it diffuses into RBC, where it reacts with H2O and is converted into Carbonic Acid via carbonic anhydrase enzyme, ****the acid then dissociates into H+ and HCO3-

- The H+ ions made the blood more acidic which causes oxyhemoglobin to dissociate and release O2

- The HCO3- ions are pumped through the membrane of the RBC and into the plasma where they combine with Na+ to form NaHCO3

- To ensure that the RBCs remain uncharged, Cl- ions pass into them. This is known as the chloride shift!

- When the RBCs reach the lungs, the NaHCO3 combines with H+ to form H2O, CO2, and Na+

- The CO2 is then released from the body during exhalation

Partial Pressure of CO2

- As cells respire, the pO2 decreases, and the pCO2 increases

- An increase in the pCO2 causes Oxyhemoglobin to give up its O2 more readily

- This is because when the CO2 is converted to acid it produces H+ ions which lowers the pH of the blood

- The Oxyhemoglobin then dissociates, giving up its O2 so that the Hb can bind to the H+ ions to prevent a change in pH

- Therefore Hb acts as a buffer by taking up the H+ ions and forming "Hemoglobinic Acid"

BOHR EFFECT (shift in affinity graph)

- more oxygen released with increase in CO2 and lowering of pH levels

- as pCO2 increases, the dissociation curve shifts to the right & down

So Overall:

- When O2 diffuses into the lungs there is a high PP of O2, so it will load onto Hb forming Oxyhemoglobin

- The O2 is then carried in the blood to respiring cells that have a low pO2 and a high pCO2

- So the Oxyhemoglobin releases the O2 because of the low pO2 and ALSO because of the high pCO2 which causes a DROP in pH

- The O2 is used by cells for respiration and the Hb binds to the H+ ions to prevent changes in pH

The composition and O2 carrying capacity differs among organisms...

Leslie: http://www.interactive-biology.com/2643/061-the-bohr-effect/

Transport of Respiratory Gases: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Qrvrs6RXxwY

Biochem dude: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DgelvyH7iB8&feature=related

Transmembrane Domains

"...Because the interior of the bilayer and the interiors of most proteins of known structure are hydrophobic, it is presumed to be a requirement of the amino acids that span a membrane that they be hydrophobic as well..."

Blue, Pink, (some) Green FLASHCARDS!

Very Hydrophobic Amino Acids:

Uterine Cycle